Chesar
See:
https://www.reddit.com/conlangs/comments/kix2hz/intro_to_kesan_aka_protodwarf/ For the first post in my series on dwarfish languages, in which I detail the proto-language which this descends from.
There's a lot to cover. Also do note that as always, I ripped most of this from a real language, in this case the Australian Aboriginal language Jingulu, see:
https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_11047/rpverbs.pdf?Expires=1609027940&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=Fihe4KQjcS0wfo35Z8r2TWWBp08ABSxQQ9pEHnJgkKPm5JRewWasVbwjzYdT7p~aFmkMbdfwz56JqlT~jCd3ZnM6DfKbM8HZ7PR9LcahQa6gVof4iFupk3cS0FOgwgLvx-m6bhs~H1i4GuPQ~aiGn~r~3CSN6e9JszXWTlywMzLktvxhsB5j01NorbvFf3IYV07PqKeebhpQcO7-yjQaB6-SwwgieJxMLlUPggIOUaNEwo31L8woAxY0VcUjs21cLa2~GKaEb9oYM9gTFrNmDLyiKv7-OrPiyToww5kMksdFx0Td~VuQtUadHnbH6cYrhAEZEUKf6EQXrgASwKJHLQ__ and
https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/146163/1/PL-536.pdf For more.
About the language: Chesar is a standardized literary language, whose colloquial forms were spoken around 3000 years prior to the present of the Almar world. Chesar is one of the oldest literary languages in the world, and its descendants are still spoken around the Kes lake.
Chesar is a Kesan (or Dwarfish) language, and forms its own branch within the family. It's a very conservative language, and such many of the ancestral grammatical structures and word-forms are fairly well-preserved despite a time-depth of about 5000 years.
Chesar was the language in which the great holy book, the Book of Imottan, was written. It is still in use as a sacred language amongst the elves, but the dwarfs use the High Dwarfish language instead. Its influence is primarily found in the form of loanwords pertaining to religious matters.
Sample:
Lrhunakwe sukwena br magwex̌we zajha qwewemigweze sadu hesunave lrhunanrheve txh'iwasamile. /lˁunakʷə sukʷəna bərə magʷəχʷə zad͡ʒə qʷəwəmigʷəzə sadu həsunavə lˁunanˁəvə t’ˁiwasamilə/
[ˈl͡ʢə̤ṳnakʷə ˈsukʷəna br̩ ˈmagʷəχʷə ˈzad͡ʒə ˈqʷəwəmigʷəzə ˈsadu ˈhɨsunavə ˈl͡ʢə̤ṳnan͡ʢə̤v ˈt͡ʜ’ʰəiwasamilə]
"The clever fox quickly caught that bear who had eaten the fox's friend."
lˁuna-kʷə sukʷə-na bərə-Ø magʷəχʷə Fox.MASC-ERG smart-MASC that-MASC bear.MASC zad͡ʒə qʷəwə-mi-gʷəzə sadu həsuna-və quickly seize-3.SG.ERG:3.SG.ABS-go.PERF that(AFFOR) friend.MASC-DAT lˁuna-nˁə-və t’ˁiwasa-mi-lə fox.MASC-GEN-DAT eat-3.SG.ERG:3.SG.ABS-do.PERF
Rhuyeve tamile Amaharukwe, Rhux̌akwe tanajha chiwirachive, Tanapm Rhalamereve. ”Amaharu said it to me,
I have come to say it to you,
And I will go say it to the world (OR: And you will go say it to the world)"
ʕujə-və ta-mi-lə amaharu-kʷə 1SG.GEN-DAT speak-3SG.ERG:3SG.ABS-do.PERF Amaharu.FEM-ERG ʕuχakʷə ta-na-d͡ʒa t͡ʃiwirat͡ʃi-və 1SG.ERG speak-1SG.ERG:3SG.ABS-come.IMPF 2PLU.GEN-DAT ta-na-pəmə ʕalamərə-və speak-1(2?)SG.ERG:3SG.ABS-go.FUT world.INAN-DAT
| Labial | Pharyng. Labial | Alveolar | Pharyng Alveolar | Palatal | Labial. velar | Uvular | Labial. Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal |
Voiceless | p | pˁ | t | tˁ | t͡ʃ | kʷ | q | qʷ | | |
Ejective | p' | p'ˁ | t' | t'ˁ | t͡ʃ' | kʷ' | q' | qʷ' | | ʔ |
Voiced | b | bˁ | d | dˁ | d͡ʒ | gʷ | | | | |
Voiceless fricative | f | | s | sˁ | ʃ | xʷ | χ | χʷ | ħ | h |
Voiced fricative | v | | z | zˁ | ʒ | | | | ʕ | |
Approximant | w | wˁ | l | lˁ | j | | | | | |
Nasal | m | mˁ | n | nˁ | | | | | | |
Trill | | | r | rˁ | | | | | | |
Phonotactics: CV syllables only.
/ə/ is pronounced [ɨ] in a stressed syllable unless preceded by a pharyngeal/pharyngealized consonant, otherwise it is pronounced [ə].
Syllabic consonants /l̩/, /r̩/, /n̩/ and /m̩/ appear word finally, but these are best understood as underlying /ənə/, /əmə/, /ələ/ and /ərə/ respectively.
With voiced consonants, pharyngealization is realised as:
- A pharyngeal/epiglottal voiced trill-release of the consonant.
- The following vowel is pronounced with a murmured voice.
With voiceless consonants (including ejectives), pharyngealization is realised as:
- A pharyngeal/epiglottal voiceless trill-release of the consonant.
- The following vowel is pronounced with a noisy, aspirated release.
Furthermore, vowels /i/ and are diphthongized following pharyngeals: /i/ -> [əi], -> [əu]
Thus:
/dˁu/ -> [d͡ʢə̤ṳ]
/tˁi/ -> [t͡ʜʰəi]
(This is based on Chechen btw)
Sound changes since Kesan: The aspirated series shift to fricatives:
/pʰ/ -> /f/
/tʰ/ -> /s/
/kʲʰ/ -> /xʲ/
/kʷʰ/ -> /xʷ/
/qʰ/ -> /χ/
/qʷʰ/ -> /χʷ/
Palatalized velars shift to Alveopalatals, leaving the language with only a labialized velar series.
/kʲ/ -> /t͡ʃ/
/xʲ/ -> /ʃ/
/kʲ'/ -> /t͡ʃ'/
/gʲ/ -> /d͡ʒ/
Following this, alveolars also shift to alveopalatals when followed by /i/
/ti/ -> /t͡ʃi/
/si/ -> /ʃi/
/t’i/ -> /t͡ʃ’i/
/zi/ -> /ʒi/
/t͡si/ -> /t͡ʃi/
/d͡zi/ -> /d͡ʒi/
Glottals become pharyngeals when followed by a pharyngealized vowel:
/hVˁ/ -> [ħVˁ]
/ʔVˁ/ -> [ʕVˁ]
Pharyngealization shifts from vowels to adjacent alveolalabial consonants, If no eligible consonants are adjacent to the vowel pharyngealization is lost, if both adjacent consonants are eligible, the consonant following the vowel is pharyngealized.
P=eligible consonant.
K=non-eligible consonant.
/PVˁK/ -> /PˁVK/
/KVˁP/ -> /KVPˁ/
/KVˁK/ -> /KVK/
/PVˁP/ -> /PVPˁ/
Some time following this, /vˁ/ and /fˁ/ shift to /ʕ/ and /ħ/, respectively.
/ə/ inserted errywhere:
/CC/ -> /CəC/
/CVC__/ -> /CVCə/ (is this how you denote word-final consonants? pls halp my linguistics formulafu is weak)
Vowel reduction? I haven't figured out the exact details yet, open to suggestions.
Word final voiceless fricatives and word-final syllables composed of a voiceless fricative and an /ə/ are dropped. This has an interesting effect on certain words, which now develop two distinct forms depending on whether or not they take any suffixes. For instance, the 1st person singular pronoun nominative /ʕuχə/ loses the final syllable, becoming /ʕu/, but in the plural, the final syllable is "protected" by the plural suffix, and so the original form remains: /ʕuχa-t͡ʃə/
Lastly:
/ɮ/ -> /ʒ/
/ɬ/ -> /l/
/t͡s’/ -> /səʔ/
/t͡s/ -> /s/
/d͡z/ -> /z/
/ji/ -> /jə/
/wu/ -> /wə/
/Cʷu/ -> /Cʷə/
/VhV/ -> /VnV/ (unless at least one of V=, in which case /VhV/->/VmV/)
Overall grammatical changes from the proto-language: - Pronouns developed tripartite allignment (rest of the language stays ergative-absolutive)
- Developed a three-way gender system (masculine animate, feminine animate, inanimate)
- BECAME NON-CONFIGURATIONAL. Word order is more or less random, discontinuity all over the place, pro-dropping, this language doesn't give a shit.
- Lost most of the inflected verbs, so might only have 3 verbs depending on how you look at it. See below.
- Omni-predicative? Sort of? Technically not? It's hard to explain, see below, in practice everything can be verbified, but it's less that nouns serve as verbs and more that semantically deficient verbs can have nouns bolted on to them to give them an actual meaning... it's weird.
Pronouns, which are now tripartite: | | Singular | Dual | Plural |
1. | Nominative | ʕu | ʕuʕu | ʕuχat͡ʃə |
| Ergative | ʕuχakʷə | ʕuʕuχakʷə | ʕuχat͡ʃəkʷə |
| Accusative | ʕuju | ʕuʕuju | ʕuχat͡ʃəju |
| Genitive | ʕujə- | ʕuʕujə- | ʕuχat͡ʃi- |
2. | Nominative | t͡ʃiwira | t͡ʃit͡ʃiwira | t͡ʃiwirat͡ʃə |
| Ergative | t͡ʃiwirakʷə | t͡ʃit͡ʃiwirakʷə | t͡ʃiwirat͡ʃəkʷə |
| Accusative | t͡ʃiwiju | t͡ʃit͡ʃiwiju | t͡ʃiwirat͡ʃəju |
| Genitive | t͡ʃiwi- | t͡ʃit͡ʃiwi- | t͡ʃiwirat͡ʃi- |
3. | Nominative | kʷ’ə | kʷ’əkʷ’ə | kʷ’əʃat͡ʃə |
| Ergative | - | - | - |
| Accusative | kʷ’əʃu | kʷ’əkʷ’əʃu | kʷ’əʃat͡ʃu |
| Genitive | kʷ’i- | kʷ’əkʷ’i- | kʷ’əʃat͡ʃi- |
As you can see above, Chesar has a tripartite pronoun system, with distinct forms for intransitive subject (nominative), transitive subject (ergative) and transitive object (accusative).
Note that the lack of ergative pronouns in the third person is not an accident, as Kesar completely lacks them. Demonstratives are instead used. Other 3rd person pronouns exist, but demonstratives are again commonly in their place. True 3rd person pronouns are only used for emphasis.
Genitive pronouns may appear on their own without an overt head and may thus both be translated as "my" and "mine". ("That's
my book. It's
mine"). They agree with their head in gender and case.
The tripartite system developed, in parts, as a result of the increased use of demonstratives in lieu of third person pronouns. The fact that these demonstratives, unlike pronouns, but like other nouns, followed an ergative allignment, brought further confusion to to an already complex system. The pattern of these demonstratives, which were marked with an Ergative case suffix when transitive subjects, was regularized to apply to other pronouns, and formed by attaching an ergative /-(a)kʷə/ suffix to the nominative form. However, pronouns had distinct Nominative and Accusative forms, and these stuck around even after the addition of the ergative. Thus you get a tripartite system, with no distinct ergative form for 3rd person pronouns.
Examples:
”I went”
Rhu rhuzigwe. ʕu ʕu-zigʷə 1SG.NOM 1SG-go.PERF
"He went"
Kw’e ’ezigwe Br ’ezigwe kʷ’ə / br ʔə-zigʷə 3SG.NOM / DEM.MASC.ABS 3SG-go.PERF
"I brought him"
Rhux̌akwe kw’eshu nazigwe Rhux̌akwe br nazigwe ʕuχakʷə kʷ’əʃu / br na-zigʷə 1SG.ERG 3SG.ACC / DEM.MASC.ABS 1SG.ERG:3SG.ABS-go.PERF
Berakwe kw’eshu mizigwe Berakwe br mizigwe bər-akʷə kʷ’əʃu / br mi-zigʷə DEM.MASC-ERG 3SG.ACC / DEM.MASC.ABS 3SG.ERG:3SG.ABS-gå.PERF
GRAMMATICAL GENDER SYSTEM: Each grammatical gender has a "common" ending that many words in the group end on, and this ending is used to derive further words into the group. Gender is also mostyl semantically determined, so it is somewhat predictable. But still, for a lot of words you just have to memorize it. The grammatical gender of a noun triggers agreement in adjectives (whose only distinction from nouns is having no inherent gender) and usually demonstratives and genitive pronouns.
Gender suffixes: Masculine: /-Ø ~ -na/
(/-na/ is used for deriving new words into the class and also functions as a generic nomen agentis, in agreement context it only appears on adjectives. Genitive pronouns and demonstratives show null-agreement)
Feminine (smaller): /-waʃi ~ -ʃi/
(/-waʃi/ is the prefered form for derivation, while /-ʃi/ is the prefered form for agreement)
Inanimate: /-Ø ~ -sə-/
(The /-sə-/ form appears only when followed by another suffix, otherwise /-Ø/ is used)
”That big man”
Br zejhina rhala bərə-Ø zəd͡ʒi-na ʕala that-MASC big-MASC man.MASC
”That big woman”
Bereshi zejhishi mamuma bərə-ʃi zəd͡ʒi-ʃi mamumə that-FEM big-FEM woman.FEM
”That big rock”
Br zejhi t’ufa bərə-Ø zəd͡ʒi-Ø t’ufa that-INAN big-INAN rock.INAN
The gender-system developed as a result of a combination of several things... stuff... stuff happened.
The basic idea is that continued dislocation resulted in certain derivational suffixes becoming used A LOT, think of the following: "I killed that fat woman", a sentence we have all said at some point in our life. Over time it became more and more common for Chesar speakers to dislocate parts of the sentence:
"I killed fat woman, that (one)", or
"I killed that woman, (the) fat (one)".
With sentences like these becoming more and more common, speakers needed to disambiguate who the dislocated bit refered to. In the above example, the referent is a woman, and the language already had a derivational suffix /-wasi/ used for deriving words, typically refering to females. This suffix was expanded and applied to the dislocated part when it refered back to a female, so the above would be rendered:
"I killed fat woman, that-FEM (one)", or
"I killed that woman, (the) fat-FEM (one)".
This was then regularized to be used even when these elements were not dislocated, and over time dislocation would become simple discontinuity, so the above would end out as:
"I killed fat-FEM woman that-FEM"
"I killed that-FEM woman fat-FEM."
"I killed that-FEM fat-FEM woman."
See? Easy peasy. So the development of gender and non-configurationality was closely related.
Anyway, the origin of gender:
(WIP)
The feminine animate came about due to the following:
- Increased productivity of the "feminine/odd" derivational suffix /-wasi/ (/-waʃi/ following sound changes).
- Generalization/reinterpretation of many words ending on /-si/ (mostly small birds) as part of a grammatical group, along with words that refered to "odd" members of a particular group (such as flightless birds or legless lizards).
The masculine animate (largest group, default for refering to animates):
- Old nomen agentis suffix /-na/ reanalyzed as a masculine/non-feminine animate gender marker.
The inanimate:
- The old nominalizing/gerundive suffix /-tʰ/ (/-sə/ following sound changes) reanalyzed as an inanimate/abstract gender marker. It is then lost word-finally as a result of regular sound changes, and only surfaces when followed by other suffixes (such as case markers).
Since all gender markers originated as derivational suffixes, they appear before any other nominal inflectional suffixes.
VERBS Form: SIGNIFIER-AGREEMENT-LIGHT.VERB
"We went to drink it"
Chitekweyenazi. /t͡ʃitəkʷə-jəna-zi/
drink-1.PLU.ERG:3.SG.ABS-go.PERF
Verbs in Chesar are unspecified for transitivity, the only thing determining their transitivity is the upper number of arguments they can meaningfully take. The verb meaning "go" can also mean "bring", the verb meaning "dive" can mean "throw into water".
"He died"
Brhule bˁu-Ø-lə die-3.SG.ABS-do.PERF
"He killed him" (lit. "he died him")
Brhumile bˁu-mi-lə die-3.SG.ERG:3.SG.ABS-do.PERF
Changes from Kesan: The verbs overall structure is mostly unchanged from Kesan (see the previous post), but six major developments have taken place in the interim:
- The Uninflected verbs have integrated fully with whatever inflected verb postcedes them, becoming morphologically part of the same word. They are now refered to as "signifiers" (not sure what else to call them). So /ɮaˁ mid͡zigʷɨd͡zɨ/ -> /ɮaˁmid͡zigʷɨd͡zɨ/. Furthermore, there is no longer a clear distinction between them and nouns; signifiers can serve as nouns if marked for gender, and nouns can serve as signifiers (in most cases losing their gender)
- The vast majority of the Inflected Verbs have been lost, reducing the class to a mere handful. This class is now refered to as the "Light Verbs".
- Nouns may now be verbed freely, this came about as a result of A: some nouns also serving as uninflected verbs/signifiers set a precedence. B: reduced subordinate clauses became a mainstay: /magʷəχʷə ʔə-lə/ "a bear he-was" became /magʷəχʷə-lə/ "(he) was a bear"
- The light verb base has fused with aspect/mode/tense suffixes.
- The agreement affixes have undergone some degree of fusion.
- The subordinating relativizer affix /-fə/ has been lost as part of regular sound changes.
Signifier: The Signifier is the element of the verb that carries most of the core meaning of the verb, /t͡ʃitəkʷə/, for instance, means "to drink". Signifiers may serve as predicates on their own, with no agreement or light verb, in certain subordinate clauses (see below), but oddly enough, in spite of what I just wrote, they aren't really the core of the verb - the light verb is.
A regular noun may also serve as a signifier. The exact meaning of the resulting verb varries, but generally it means "to be NOUN" or "to do (as one would do if one were a) NOUN to X".
Signifiers aren't truly distinct from regular nouns, and may in fact just be interpreted as inanimate nouns incorporated into the verb (it's weird).
Agreement: See the link below for a comparison between verbal agreement in Kesan (Proto-Dwarf) and Chesar.
https://imgur.com/a/mLoU80Z Reflexives and reciprocals are formed by specialized affixes followed by an intransitive agreement affix.
Light Verb: There is, in one way of looking at it, only 3 verbs in Chesar. "to do/be", "to go" and "to come". These are the light verbs. They are the final part of the full verb and serve as a way of indicating associated motion, as well as tense, aspect and modality.
Light verbs may appear (with agreement) without any signifier when refering to simple motion. "I go to you" could be expressed simply as:
Nawegweze. nawə-gʷəzə 1SG.ERG:2SG.ABS-go.IMPF
No signifier necessary. The same is true when the action refered to refers back to one previously mentioned, or when it is obvious from context:
"I killed him, I
did it".
or
"I
did that" (pointing to a corpse)
Some inflections have two forms: a short and a long form. The short form is used if the light verb is preceded by four or more syllables (including signifier and agreement), the long form is used otherwise.
The light verbs are as follows:
To go: Four conjugations: Perfect, Imperfect, Future and Imperative (used for positive imperatives which include motion, "go and X")
PERFECT: /-zi ~ -zigʷə/
IMPERFECT: /-gʷə ~ -gʷəzə/
FUTURE: /-pəmə/
MOVEMENT-IMPERATIVE: /-ma ~ -d͡ʒima/
To come:
Three conjugations: Perfect, Imperfect and Future.
PERFECT: /-χa ~ -χad͡ʒa)/
IMPERFECT: /-d͡ʒa/
FUTURE: /-xʷi/
To be/to do: Rather than indicating a lack of motion, this light verb is simply unspecified for motion - it may refer to motion to-or-from an endpoint, it may not.
Unlike the other two light verbs, this one has a bunch of forms, including various irrealis forms. It may be treated as many forms of one light verb or many light verbs with a single form, hard to say.
PERFECT: /-lə/
IMPERFECT: /-dˁa ~ -nidˁa/
FUTURE: /-dələ/
HABITUAL: /-t’əka/
PERFECT HABITUAL: /-t’ət’ə/
IMPERATIVE: /-da/
NEGATIVE IMPERATIV: /-dənə ~ -nadənə/
SUBJUNCTIVE: /-bˁa/
JUSSIVE: /-χʷəlu/
Subordinate clauses: Due to the loss of the subordinating relative suffix /-fə/ , there is no longer any formal distinction between verbs in subordinate clauses and verbs in main clauses. Instead you just know them from context, and from the fact that most subordinate clauses are headed by some kind of subordinating particle (haven't done any work on them yet).
The aspect/tense used in subordinate clauses is always relative to that of the main clause. When the referent and tense is identical to that of the main clause, the agreement and light verb may be omitted entirely, leaving nothing but a naked signifier as the predicate of the subordinate clause.
"I fell and cut my leg"
Qwagwerhule, qaye t'ume. qʷagʷə-ʕu-lə qajə t'umə fall-1SG.ABS-do.PERF leg cut
Note how the signifier /t'umə/ lacks both agreement and light verb. This developed from nominalized signifiers which then lost the nominalizing /-sə/ suffix due to sound changes.
The alternate system of forming subordinate clauses by attaching case suffixes to the nominalized verb was completely lost in Chesar. But it would have a massive impact on another branch of the family, but more about that next week.
Fun, isn't it? Still a bunch of stuff I haven't figured out, including how exactly the case system turned out (Reduced? Mostly unchanged? Expanded?). But it works.
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